Ethnography is a qualitative research method that involves observing and studying a culture or group of people over an extended period of time. The focus is on understanding the culture and the meanings and practices that are important to the people in that culture. Ethnographic research often involves participant observation, which means the researcher immerses themselves in the culture they are studying to gain a deeper understanding of the culture from an insider perspective.
Participants: Ethnography typically involves observing and interacting with participants in their natural settings to understand their culture, beliefs, and behaviors. Participants may include individuals or groups of people from a particular community, organization, or society. For example, an ethnographic study of a tribe in the Amazon rainforest may involve living among them, learning their language, and participating in their daily activities.
Sources of Evidence: Ethnography relies on multiple sources of evidence, including participant observation, interviews, documents, and artifacts. Researchers may also use audio and video recordings, field notes, and photographs to capture their observations and experiences. The data collected through these sources is often analyzed using thematic analysis, content analysis, or discourse analysis to identify patterns and themes in the participants' behaviors and beliefs.
When presenting the results and findings of an ethnographic study, it's important to provide detailed descriptions of the people, places, and cultural practices that were observed. Ethnographic research often involves spending extended periods of time in a community or cultural setting, and so the writing should reflect the depth of engagement and immersion in that setting.
Results and findings may include descriptions of the cultural practices and beliefs that were observed, as well as how they relate to broader social, economic, and political contexts. It's also important to highlight any patterns or themes that emerged from the data, such as common cultural values or norms. Ethnographers often use quotes from participants to illustrate these themes and provide a more in-depth understanding of the cultural practices and experiences.
"Designing for Diversity: Using Ethnographic Methods to Study Cultural Differences in Computer Science Education" by Maria Klawe and Diana Franklin. This study used ethnographic methods to explore the experiences of students from different cultural backgrounds in computer science education.
Klawe, M., & Franklin, D. (2010). Designing for Diversity: Using Ethnographic Methods to Study Cultural Differences in Computer Science Education. ACM Transactions on Computing Education, 10(2), Article 8. https://doi.org/10.1145/1743384.1743388
Narrative research is focused on collecting and analyzing stories or personal accounts of individuals. The focus is on understanding the subjective experiences of individuals and how they make sense of their experiences. Narrative research often involves collecting data through interviews and analyzing the data by identifying common themes and patterns in the stories.
Participants: Narrative research often involves studying individuals' personal experiences and stories. Participants may include individuals who have experienced a particular event or phenomenon, such as survivors of a natural disaster, or those who have undergone a particular medical procedure.
Sources of Evidence: Narrative research involves collecting data through interviews or written or oral stories, which can be analyzed using a variety of techniques, such as narrative analysis or discourse analysis. The goal of narrative research is to understand how individuals make sense of their experiences and how their stories contribute to our understanding of larger social or cultural issues.
Narrative research often focuses on the stories or experiences of individuals, and so the writing should center around the participants' perspectives and voices. Results and findings may include a detailed analysis of the narratives collected, highlighting themes or patterns that emerge across multiple stories.
The writing should also emphasize the complexity and nuance of each individual's experience, avoiding overly simplistic or reductionist explanations. Researchers may use quotes or excerpts from the narratives to illustrate their analysis and provide a deeper understanding of the participants' experiences.
"Narrative Inquiry in Computing Education Research" by Amber Settle. This study used narrative inquiry to explore the experiences of women in computing education.
Settle, A. (2015). Narrative Inquiry in Computing Education Research. In S. Fincher, M. Robins, J. H. Rountree, & C. E. Hannafin (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2015 ITiCSE Conference on Working Group Reports (pp. 41-62). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/2839509.2844647
Phenomenological research is focused on understanding the subjective experiences of individuals and how they make sense of their experiences. The focus is on exploring the meaning of the experiences and understanding how individuals interpret and perceive the world around them. Phenomenological research often involves collecting data through interviews and analyzing the data by identifying common themes and patterns in the experiences.
Participants: Phenomenological research involves studying individuals' subjective experiences of a particular phenomenon. Participants may include individuals who have experienced a particular event, such as a traumatic event, or those who have undergone a particular medical procedure.
Sources of Evidence: Phenomenological research involves collecting data through in-depth interviews and analyzing the participants' descriptions of their experiences. Researchers may also use other sources of data, such as diaries or artistic expressions, to gain a deeper understanding of the participants' experiences. The goal of phenomenological research is to understand the meaning and essence of the participants' experiences.
Phenomenological research is concerned with exploring the meaning and essence of lived experiences. Results and findings may involve a detailed analysis of the experiences described by participants, as well as an exploration of the underlying meanings and themes that emerge from the data.
Researchers may use quotes or excerpts from participant interviews to illustrate their analysis, and may also provide a detailed description of the research process itself. It's important to approach the writing with a sense of openness and curiosity, allowing the themes and meanings to emerge from the data rather than imposing preconceived ideas or theories.
"Phenomenological Investigations in Computer-Mediated Communication" by Jenny Preece. This study used phenomenology to explore the experiences of users of computer-mediated communication systems.
Preece, J. (2000). Phenomenological Investigations in Computer-Mediated Communication. Journal of Phenomenological Psychology, 31(2), 145-160. https://doi.org/10.1163/15691620051094453
Grounded theory is a qualitative research method that involves developing a theory or explanation for a phenomenon based on data collected through observations, interviews, and other forms of data collection. The focus is on developing a theory that is grounded in the data and explaining how the phenomenon works. Grounded theory often involves collecting data through multiple methods and analyzing the data by identifying common themes and patterns in the data.
Participants: Grounded theory research involves studying individuals' experiences and behaviors in a particular context. Participants may include individuals from a specific community or organization, such as healthcare professionals or patients.
Sources of Evidence: Grounded theory research involves collecting data through interviews, observations, and document analysis, which is then analyzed using constant comparative analysis to develop a theory that emerges from the data. The goal of grounded theory research is to generate a theory that explains the social or cultural phenomenon under study.
Grounded theory is a research method that involves developing a theory from the data collected, rather than starting with a preconceived theory or hypothesis. Results and findings may include a detailed analysis of the data, including any patterns, themes, or categories that emerge.
The writing should focus on how the theory developed from the data, as well as the practical implications of the theory for the field. Researchers may also discuss the limitations of the theory and suggest areas for future research.
"Grounded Theory Approach to Virtual Collaboration Research" by Terri Griffith. This study used grounded theory to explore the factors that influence successful virtual collaboration.
Griffith, T. L. (2013). Grounded Theory Approach to Virtual Collaboration Research. In A. B. Hollingshead & M. S. Poole (Eds.), Research Methods for Studying Groups and Teams: A Guide to Approaches, Tools, and Technologies (pp. 209-232). Routledge.
A case study is a qualitative research method that involves in-depth analysis of a specific case or example. The focus is on understanding the unique characteristics of the case and how they relate to a broader phenomenon or theory. Case studies often involve collecting data through multiple methods, such as interviews, observations, and document analysis.
Participants: Case study research involves studying individuals, groups, or organizations in a particular context. Participants may include individuals or groups of people from a particular community, organization, or society.
Sources of Evidence: Case study research involves collecting data through multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and document analysis. Researchers may also use archival data, such as historical records or newspapers, to gain a deeper understanding of the case under study. The data collected through these sources is analyzed to identify patterns and themes that contribute to our understanding of the case. The goal of case study research is to understand the complexity and context of the case under study.
Case studies involve in-depth analysis of a particular individual, group, or situation. Results and findings may include a detailed description of the case, as well as an analysis of the factors that contributed to the outcome or experience described.
The writing should be structured around the research questions or hypotheses, and should provide a detailed analysis of the data collected. Researchers may use quotes or excerpts from interviews or other sources to illustrate their analysis, and may also discuss the limitations and generalizability of the findings.
"Case Studies in HCI Research: A Comparison of Seven Approaches" by John M. Carroll. This study used case study methods to compare seven different approaches to human-computer interaction research.
Carroll, J. M. (2007). Case Studies in HCI Research: A Comparison of Seven Approaches. In J. A. Jacko & A. Sears (Eds.), The Human-Computer Interaction Handbook: Fundamentals, Evolving Technologies and Emerging Applications (pp. 617-633). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.